The older barns are usually constructed of wood, and, understandably, farmers paint their barns to preserve the wood. This is a practice that dates back a very long time, at least to Europeans prior to American settlement. At one time, skimmed milk, red iron oxide (rust), lime and linseed oil were mixed together as a homemade paint. The rust was known to prevent the growth of mold and mildew that rotted the wood. Reportedly, some people even added the blood of animals, possibly for its iron content. In some cases, only linseed oil and rust were mixed together and used as a wood preservative.

I got to wondering about the linseed oil. It is used as a drying agent in paint, and helped the milk mixture to soak into the wood, thus preventing the paint from peeling off in sheets. It turns out that linseed oil comes from the plant known as flax, of the genus Linum.

As its genus name suggests, fibers from the flax plant are used to make linen. This is the cloth used to wrap Egyptian mummies, but was also used extensively for clothing at least 7,000 years ago. Linen was an important commodity for trading with Arabs and Persians.

Modern folks may recognize flaxseed as one of the richest sources of fiber (more than oatmeal!), as well as the healthy omega-3 fatty acids that help reduce “bad” cholesterol, and antioxidants known as lignans. But flax has so many other uses; it could well be dubbed the “all-in-one plant”.

Some examples of the uses of flax include: dye, rope, paper, medicine, fishing nets, hair gels, soap, cattle feed, and linoleum. I myself have benefitted from a number of these uses, but there will always be a special place in my garden for the small blue flax flower. Although the species I grow as a perennial in my garden, Linum perenne, is different from the one used to make linen and other goods, they share their special true-blue flower color. The flowers are borne at the tips of thin, airy branches about 10 inches off the ground. They open every morning and close by mid-afternoon. The fine-textured stems of bluish-green and the smallish flowers give the plant a soft, delicate appearance. If you use it, place it at the front of the bed, and place it where you will pass it each morning, to fully appreciate its charm.

Little did I know when I first wondered about the redness of barns, that it would lead me so far and wide, from ancient Egypt to the flowers in my own garden. That’s an impressive resume for such an unassuming little plant.

Recently 24 students from the School of Agriculture at Western Illinois University spent ten days over spring break learning about Australian culture and Agriculture first-hand. The very first night they were able to attend the opening rugby match between two local teams, the Sydney Roosters and the Rabbitohs – the latter owned by actor Russell Crowe, who was also at the game. The next day the group visited the Muru Mittigar Aboriginal Culture Center where they learned about native plants and their various uses; got to throw boomerangs; tasted kangaroo and emu; and enjoyed homemade bread with lilly pilly jelly.

The group learned about the all-important make-or-break issue of irrigation water in New South Wales touring a citrus orchard, rice production, and vineyards, and passing through the wheat-sheep belt. New South Wales has had record rains this year, following ten years of drought. Water rights are so important; some farmers find it more profitable to sell those than to produce crops on their land.

Livestock production is largely given over to forage-fed beef and sheep. Kangaroos compete with sheep for grass where they co-exist in the “bush”. Hamburgers taste different “Down Under”, due to the beef being mainly range-fed.

The two largest grocery stores in Australia dictate prices to farmers, driving many growers to seek the higher prices in the export market. Eating “Local Food” is an unfamiliar concept there.

Highlights of the trip:

A large kangaroo within a few feet of the group – at least until it ran off;

Being warned to be careful in Griffith (presumably because the Mafia was once pervasive there);

Free Wi-Fi at MacDonalds, but hardly anywhere else;

White sand beaches and great waves for surfing and wave-riding, within a bus ride from Sydney;

The wine science program at Charles Sturt University, including a tour and wine-tasting;

Low points of the trip:

Shops closing at 5:30, especially in the smaller towns. High labor rates were to blame – minimum wage was 17.00AUD;

Lessons learned:

If you see art in the alleyways in Melbourne, it’s not graffiti, but sanctioned art, some of it changes on a daily basis;

Koalas may or may not live in the trees in the Royal Botanical Garden in Melbourne, but if they do, they are extremely shy (and do not respond to “here, koala, koala”);

Asian food is plentiful and delicious.

Other factoids: koalas don’t drink water. They do eat leaves from only one species of eucalyptus tree (called gum trees by the locals).Vegemite is made from yeast extract and malt extract, with plenty of salt. Yummmm. Righteo. No worries.

When I first started thinking about plants that came into the United States from Africa, I immediately thought of peanuts. Maybe it’s because of my Nigerian friends who taught me how to make peanut butter chicken. That was my first experience cooking with peanut butter –I’ll share that recipe at the end of this article. I was surprised to learn that not only did peanuts originate in South America, but peanut butter has been around since Mayan times.

Cowpeas originated in Africa, but they are more widely known as black eyed peas, probably because of the white spot surrounded by a black spot on the white bean. Many people do not like the flavor of black eyed peas, and some people suggest adding bacon or a ham bone in the cooking pot to improve the flavor. However, a jalapeno pepper in the pot works well, too.

All accounts agree that the watermelon originated in Africa, where vast expanses of them have been observed growing wild. Local people have long used them as a source of water in desert areas. Watermelon grows on sandy soil and thrives in very hot temperatures. Evidence exists of their cultivation in other areas of the world for thousands of years. One report states that watermelon was brought to America by early European colonists, whereas another source claims they were brought along on ships involved in the slave trade. Maybe both are true. Another report mentions a Russian alcoholic beverage made from watermelon.

Gumbo would not be gumbo without okra, but okra can be cooked other ways, too. Such as dipped in cornmeal and fried. Wild forms of okra can be found in the area of its origin: Ethiopia and the upper Nile region.  The pods must be harvested when very young and still tender: after about 5 days or so they become increasingly woody and don’t cook very well. Many people object to the slimy nature of the pods when cooked, but they make a great addition to soups and stews, where that feature isn’t so noticeable. I know one person who eats them green as she harvests them!

Now that you’ve stuck with me this far, here’s that peanut butter chicken recipe I promised, complete with my own secret ingredient: Chop an onion and 3 cloves of garlic and sauté them in cooking oil till translucent. Add bite-sized pieces of chicken and cook for 3 minutes on medium heat. Add 2 ounces of sweet vermouth and simmer for 2 minutes, then add 2 chopped tomatoes, 1 tablespoon of tomato paste, and 1 chopped bell pepper or two chile peppers, simmer for 15 minutes and add basil, oregano, and parsley, salt and black pepper to taste. Simmer 10 more minutes and stir in 2 tablespoons of peanut butter. Serve over freshly cooked white rice. Bon Apetit!

In his book “The Wild Braid”, gardener and poet Kunitz calls the garden “the cosmos in miniature” that is symbolic of life, complete with its surprises, and unexpected outcomes.

Rachel Naomi Remen tells a story of one such unexpected outcome in her collection of stories, “Kitchen Table Wisdom”. She made a decision many gardeners would not: she allowed a stag who was eating her rose bushes free access to her garden, and explains: “I thought I was planting rosebushes in order to have roses. It now seems I was actually planting rosebushes in order to have half an hour of silence with this magical animal every morning and every evening.”

In “The Sanctuary Garden”, author Chris McDowell tells the story of the backyard birch tree he sat under as a boy. The tree gave him a place of solace, rest, poetic imagination, and a place to watch and enjoy nature.

By such simple acts as providing water, food for birds, and nesting places, we invite nature into our lives, so that we can interact with life that goes beyond ourselves and our immediate personal concerns. It can pull us out of our own isolated worlds and impart feelings of connectedness.

Author Thomas Moore writes: “We may have to learn again the mystery of the garden: how its external characteristics model the heart itself, and how the soul is a garden enclosed, our own perpetual paradise where we can be refreshed and restored”.

In the words of Phyllis McGinley: “Gardening has compensations out of all proportion to its goals. It is creation in the pure sense.”

In the snow-covered frozen land that is winter in the Midwest, the gardener in each of us remembers the green of the landscape from summer. Yet many of us are still able to embrace the beauty of winter in the naked skeletons of trees, some still clasping their brown leaves from autumn. Too, we appreciate the boughs of the evergreens that remain majestic as winds howl through them. Even the dried stems of tall grasses half-buried in snow emanate a sense of silent determination in the face of adversity.

We know the tulips, daffodils, and crocuses will come, as surely as they always do. We know, without ever being told, that gardening is not only an act of hope, but is hope incarnate in a living, breathing form. Hope and love, I should say. A wise man once said that if you want to learn how to love, begin by keeping a houseplant. In that way you will learn how to care for another, to meet its needs, to help it thrive. By doing so, you may learn the rewards for such caring are great, indeed.

“Why not?” I thought. Why shouldn’t animals use plants in the same way as humans? So, I went to the source I so often go to when I have a burning desire to find something out: I Googled it. And, sure enough, my search turned up “About 1,520,000 results [in] (0.13 seconds)”.

The first article on the list was from The National Zoo – The Smithsonian – a reputable source, I figured. So I checked it out and right away I learned a new word: “zoopharmacognosy”. This is the term used to describe self-medicative behavior in animals.

“What are some of these self-medicative behaviors?” I can hear you asking. Well, there are examples of pregnant elephants who self-induce labor, monkeys who rub themselves with citrus leaves that work as insecticides, and bears who do the same with a different plant. Then there are the chimpanzees who fold up and swallow specific “hairy” leaves that are not in their normal diet, for the sole purpose of getting rid of intestinal parasites. (You’ll have to read the article to learn how they figured that one out.)

The leaves used by chimpanzees for intestinal parasites are also used by people in sub-Saharan Africa for at least 25 ailments, half of them intestinal or parasitic in nature. Similarly, leaves from the tree the African elephant used to self-induce labor, is also used by Kenyan women for the same purpose – except in the case of the elephant, she ate an entire tree, whereas the women only have to brew a tea from the leaves.

But, of course, does that mean that humans learned these behaviors from the animals? Well, according to the humans, the answer is very likely, “Yes”. The Navajo Indians call Ligusticum porteri, bear root. In the words of the article: “According to the folklore of southwestern Navajos, the bear by example gave the tribe this root … for treating stomachaches and infections”.

Researchers are anxious to learn more. They think we have only seen the tip of the iceberg with respect to animal-informed medicinal plant use. We all loved it when Dr. Doolittle sang that song about “talking to the animals” – suggesting that it would win him “a place in history”. Now it seems a sizable group of researchers agree that it is indeed a big step forward – and could certainly lead the way to making the world a lovelier place.

Poinsettias come to mind as one example. Christmas trees, too. Everyone seems to have their own favorites. Nowadays we celebrate traditions from so many different customs, we don’t even know from where they came.

Take the Poinsettia, once again. They are native to Mexico, and have only become a symbol of Christmas in the United States since Joel Poinsett, our ambassador to Mexico, introduced them to us. Spaniards in Mexico called it nochebuena, and also used it as a holiday decoration, but earlier than that it was thought to have medicinal qualities by the Aztecs, who called it cuetlaxochitl.

Christmas trees hail from the German tradition, as anyone who has ever sung the German version of “O Christmas Tree” can tell you. All of us living in temperate climes understand the desire to bring evergreens indoors during the winter. And this helps explain traditions from England of decking the halls with boughs of holly… and the singing of songs like “The Holly and the Ivy”, that well-known English traditional Christmas carol.

The red berries on holly have had symbolic meaning from Roman times that echo in Celtic legend, but they are also attractive, unlike so many plants at this time of year. Some say that the Druids regarded holly as a symbol of fertility and eternal life, and even imparted upon it magical powers. The leathery, unusually-shaped evergreen leaves just add to their charm.

Peppermint and sugar – red and white striped, and twisted into canes, began as plain sugar and straight sticks, but at some point peppermint was added in the form of red stripes and the sticks obtained a hook. It was said to resemble a shepherd’s hook and was used to tell a Christmas story by a German choirmaster.  Nowadays, candy canes are available in many different colors, and they just wouldn’t be the same without their stripes. But red and white – and peppermint — are still the traditional favorites. (The straight candy cane with red and white stripes originated in Sweden, and was known as a polkagris.)

Norse legend brings us the mistletoe tradition. One thing many people do not realize is that the leaves and berries are hung together, and each time a kiss is exchanged, one of the little white berries must be removed. When all the berries are gone, the free kisses are over, too.

Both Frankincense and Myrrh are resin, or dried sap from trees. They are both aromatic and have been used in perfumes and incense. Frankincense originated in southern Arabia and has been traded on the Arabian Peninsula and in North Africa for more than 5000 years.  Myrrh comes from trees native to Yemen, Somalia, Ethiopia, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. One other little known fact about myrrh is that it is also known as the “balm of Gilead”.

The list goes on and on: whether it is Yule logs burning bright through the night, or sugar plum fairies dancing in our heads, plants from around the world bring us joy and celebration through the darkness of winter, giving closure to the old and ringing in the new, in whatever tradition suits you best.  Happy Holidays!

According to John Lehndorff of the American Pie Council, “When you say that something is ‘as American as apple pie,’ what you’re really saying is that the item came to this country from elsewhere and was transformed into a distinctly American experience.” If that is true, then the same can be said about both pies and apples.

Historians agree that pie came to America with English settlers, who baked their “pyes” in pans known as “coffyns”. At that time, pastry crust was meant to contain the pie, and apparently was not particularly edible.

Whereas, the first mention in writing about pie in America dates to 1697 (Bostonian Samuel Sewall, wrote of “applepy” in his diary, regarding a picnic he attended), some historians believe that fruit pies were invented by the Pennsylvania Dutch. This is probably due to the orchards that grew various fruits in that region. Frederick Klees suggests that “during the Revolution men from the other colonies came to know this dish in Pennsylvania and carried this knowledge back home to establish pie as the great American dessert.”

On Mark Rieger’s Fruit Crop website, we learn that apples originated in the “eastern Turkey, southwestern Russia region of Asia Minor”, and that “apples were brought to North America with colonists in the 1600’s, and the first apple orchard on this continent was said to be near Boston in 1625.”

We have all heard the story of Johnny Appleseed, born John Chapman in Massachusetts in 1774. He collected seeds from apple cider mills in Pennsylvania and brought them to the Northwest Territories, now known as the American Midwest, where he planted nurseries to supply settlers with apple trees. Hundreds of nurseries were attributed to him in his lifetime. The seed-grown apples he spread around during that time were mainly used for cider, and because they were seed-grown, they contained a good deal of genetic diversity. This allowed the apple to undergo natural selection in this new geographic region. Some of the best genetic types that arose from that period of time are still favorites today, including ‘Red Delicious’, ‘Jonathon’, ‘MacIntosh’, and ‘Golden Delicious’.

So, although neither apples nor pies originated in this country, they have been brought together to create an American icon, not to mention one of our most favored desserts, and contribute especially to celebrate that most American of Holidays: Thanksgiving.

Pumpkins and squashes are true Native Americans – six species of them were important food plants prior to 1492. Corn, beans, and squash are the triumvirate of foods famously known as the “Three Sisters”. While horticulturists don’t recommend planting them together, due to competition for sun and nutrients, they are an example of companion planting that was utilized by Native Americans. The explanation given is that the beans provide much-needed nitrogen for the corn, while the corn provides support for the climbing bean plants. The squash covers the ground with prickly stems and leaves, lending credence to the contention that they inhibit raccoons from getting to the corn.

Pumpkins are thought to have been domesticated around 9,000 years ago in the northeastern region of Mexico. They are widely cultivated, and are grown on every continent except Antarctica. While related fruits can be found growing wild in Mexico and Guatemala, these are bitter, small, and hard fruits – not particularly edible.

Illinois is the number one producer of pie pumpkins in the United States. According to a recent article in Farm Week, Illinois has about 25,000 acres of pumpkins, producing a gross value of more than $160 million per year, making pumpkin production the largest vegetable industry in the state. Whereas last year was a terrible year for pumpkin harvest, due to wet fields and rains late in the season, this year is proving to be much better.

I like to toast pumpkin seeds after tossing them in olive oil and a blend of herbs and salt. In addition to being a tasty snack that comes as a bonus of sorts when you’re cleaning the fruit out for carving, they are fairly nutritious, similar to peanuts in protein content, and significantly higher in vitamins A and C.  Furthermore, the seeds contain a substance called cucurbitine, useful as an ingredient in cosmetics for its antiallergenic activity.

Perhaps there is no greater example of playing with one’s food, than the modern diversion known as Punkin’ Chunkin’. In this activity, pumpkins are launched by trebuchet and catapult, or shot out of air cannons and water cannons. Believe it or not, Rhett Allain has actually developed a scientific explanation of why these launched pumpkins will never reach the one-mile mark, he says they need to achieve speeds of 1000 mph  – so far, they are shooting in the 600 mph range. The record distance is over 4,200 feet. I haven’t found much history on this activity, but something tells me it is also native to this country.

Carving pumpkins is also an American tradition, although it is modified from a tradition in Ireland, and later England, in which scary faces known as Jack O’Lanterns, were carved into turnips, potatoes, or large beets.

Whether you chunk your punkins, make pie with them, carve them, grow them as large as a car, or decorate your home with them, you can be sure that your activities are as American as, well, pumpkins.

Possibly the most exciting technological development in nanotechnology is a photovoltaic cell that uses photosynthesis to generate electricity. The first solar photovoltaic chip was made using ground-up spinach tissue by scientist Shuguang Zhang at MIT. He was building on work by a group of researchers who had earlier figured out how to harness energy from a plant. That group was able to extract electrical current using a plant’s photosynthesis for a period of three weeks. Zhang’s chip converted approximately 12% of the light energy absorbed to electrical current. This compares to the 24% efficiency of silicon power cells. In the future, it is hoped that by adding layers of chips, efficiency will be increased to 20%. Oh, and the size of this photosynthetic solar chip? Ten to twenty nanometers or, small enough to fit about a hundred of them in the width of a human hair. If this technology pans out, think how lightweight our computers and other electronic devices may become, not to mention more environmentally friendly.

There are lots of other applications of nanotechnology in agriculture and horticulture that are being researched or are already developed. Some examples are polymer coatings for greenhouses that resist mold and fungus growth while providing thermal insulation, films for food packaging that kill harmful microbes, and color-indicator oxygen sensors that could serve as labels on food packaging, designed to reveal when produce or meat is going bad. The last example still has some kinks to work out, but expect to see some of these breakthroughs in the coming months and years, along with numerous other applications. (The greenhouse film, “Nansulate Greenhouse”, is already on the market).

In the words of Errol Hewett, of Massey University in New Zealand, and Pietro Tonuti of Sant’Anna School in Italy, “Nanotechnology is an enabling technology with the potential to revolutionize plant and food systems”. If the estimated $20 billion nanotech food market for this year is any indication, certainly it is safe to say that the future of food nanotechnology is already here.

Black pepper is the ripe fruit of a vining, twining plant that originated in the Kerala region, on the west coast of India, where it has been used both medicinally and as a food for at least 4000 years. Like many fruits, they start out green and turn red as they ripen. When dried down, they shrivel and turn black. The white pepper seed is sometimes extracted from the outer fruit, thus it lacks the piperine oil that gives pepper its distinct flavor and other properties. However, it is often used in white sauces for its color.

Some say pepper helps the digestion process, however, too much can cause gastrointestinal irritation and it can irritate ulcers. Pepper is rich in important minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, and zinc; and vitamins A, B-complexes, C, E, and K.

It was the discovery of India’s monsoon patterns around 2000 years ago that vastly increased trade, including the pepper trade, between southwest India and Rome. Ships sailed from Egypt in summer with the wind at their backs, returning in winter when the winds had shifted to the opposite direction. This route was so important that it remained a key component of the trade route between Europe and India for 1500 years.  Then, when Vasco da Gama discovered the route to India via the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal dominated the pepper trade for several hundred years.

The Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians highly valued black pepper.  Ramesses the Great had black peppercorns stuffed in his nostrils as part of the mummification rituals performed shortly after his death over 3 millennia ago. Prior to the sea route, peppercorns and other spices from India were traded via overland routes, which could be dangerous and treacherous. Later, the revival of some of these routes reduced Portugal’s stranglehold on the trade.

Pliny the Elder, living in the first century of the current era, was commander of the navy of the early Roman Empire. He complained about the cost of pepper, writing “there is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of fifty million sesterces” for it. A sesterce was a coin of the realm in those times.

Whereas Pliny did not think too highly of black pepper, it was used by the wealthy in many dishes at the time. The Apicius, a Roman cookbook compiled about 1500 years ago, lists hundreds of pepper-containing recipes like Parthinian chicken, fig-fed pork, Ostian meatballs, and even the sweet dessert, Dulcia domestica.

Black pepper itself has been accepted as currency through the ages and in various countries. For example, Attila the Hun reportedly demanded payment of 3,000 pounds of pepper in the year 408 as part of a ransom for the city of Rome. The Dutch word peperduur refers to something that is very expensive.

The power of the pepper has been in its economic value, which drove trade, led to development of trade routes, and contributed to some of the greatest political powers in human history. Maybe you thought its greatest power was its ability to make you sneeze?